Biblical Criticisms

The Bible is unarguable the most circulated book of all books in the world. It has been translated to several languages in different versions. The book has been described as the world’s best and most widely distributed book by the Guinness Book of Record. The Bible has been read by more people and published in more languages than any other book in history. It was estimated that within the period of 1815-1975 alone, 2. 5 billion copies sold.Record has also shown us that at the end of 1993, the Bible has been fully translated into 337 different languages in the world while over 2,062 languages have translations of at least one book of the Bible. Due to its wide-spread influence, the Bible has been written by various Bible societies for easier comprehension and from their revelations. This has resulted in some textual difference in these various versions of the Bible.The question is how can the original meaning of scriptures that have divergent textual interpretations by these ve rsions be known? The answer to this is Biblical criticism. What then is Biblical Criticism? In its simplest form, this term is an umbrella term for the critical study and appraisal of textual, compositional and historical questions of Biblical scriptures without recourse to revelation. It uses the canon of reason rather than and historical principles in its study.Summarily, the query inquisition made in biblical criticism concerns the preservation and transmission of biblical text and scriptures, this includes the manuscripts in which the text has been preserved, the date, its setting, its relationship, and what the most reliable form of the text is; the source and composition of the text, together with when and where it was created, how, why, by whom, for whom, and in what situation it was created, what were the influence that were work when it was produced, and what sources were used in its composition; and the message of the text as expressed in its language, including the meanin g of the words as well as the way in which they are arranged in meaningful forms of expression. There are different forms of biblical criticisms. Some of them have been in existence as far back as eighteenth century. The major types of biblical criticism are form criticism, textual criticism, philological criticism, literary criticism, traditional criticism.There are also forms of biblical criticisms that have come to existence over the years. They are the literary approach, social-scientific criticism, cultural hermeneutics under which is canonical criticism. For the purpose of this essay, more attention will be drawn on the more recent form biblical criticism; the canonical criticism. Canonical criticism as the more recent form of biblical criticism is a form of cultural hermeneutic approach of biblical criticism that deals with the theological form of interpretation that puts into the center of its study the community background within which the text was produced and from which i t is to be read.It is a form of biblical criticism that deals with how scripture’s final form was created in the context of a believing community and how the interpretations produced by that final form continually guides the reading practices such community. Canonical criticism as a form of biblical criticism has greatly affected biblical study in our world today. As a theological form of biblical study, it preaches that we ought to read Scripture from a universal perspective and not individualistically but as part of a worshiping community of fellow believers. It also seeks a practical goal in that it entails reading the Scripture not just for academic or aesthetic reasons but in order to inhabit its narrative, to have our imagination converted to its values, and to promote love of God and neighbor. In addition to this, it serves as a historic framework.For canonical critics, we ought to read Scripture in conversation with previous generations of believers, especially those of the pre-modern period. Reference: †¢ Greenslade, S. L. , ed. â€Å"Cambridge History of the Bible†. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1963. †¢ Gurthrie, D. â€Å"Canon of Scripture†, In the New International Dictionary of the Christian Church†, Rev. ed. J. D. Douglas, ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1974. †¢ Kenyon, F. G. â€Å"Handbook to the textual Criticism of the New Testament†, London: Macmillan and Co. , 1901. †¢ Biblical criticism. (2008). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved March 28, 2008, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online: http://www. britannica. com/eb/article-9079097Back to top

Penn Foster – Why I Am the Best Candidate for the Job

Best candidate for the Job The Computer Help Desk Support Technician position at University of the West Indies correlates well with my skills and experience. The skills related for this job includes, assisting students, faculty, staff and any other customers who come to the front desk, dealing with computer issues, answering the telephone to give support with enquiries, and data entry using Microsoft Word, and Excel.I have significant knowledge of this field through my previous employment at T. A. Marryshow Community College, where I served as a Secretary within the Information Technology department. I acknowledged this vocation through my ability to troubleshoot problems and deal with customer issues. More specifically, I had a scenario with a visiting professor from a foreign country who came to the office for help with his laptop.Being new to the campus he was furious with the ups and downs of trying to find his way around and baffled because he had no idea of how to connect his l aptop to the internet. I seated the professor and assured him that he was at the right place. After a few minutes I was able to connect his device to the internet and I also handed him a map of the campus to help him get to different places on the campus easily. He was overly pleased with the customer service he received and the efficiency in which I handled his laptop.This occurrence has boosted my self-confidence and also motivated me to seek an advanced degree along that path. I enrolled at Penn Foster Career School program, where I recently completed a diploma in Computer Support Technician. This thorough training helped me to comprehensively understand the skills that are readily applicable to the position. With the acquisition of this knowledge I can guarantee you that am most competent for this position and that all concerned will mutually benefit.

Employee Satisfaction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Employee Satisfaction - Essay Example Promotion should purely be merit based so that everyone in the organization gets an opportunity to move up the ranks. Also, in the event of job openings, it is advisable to first try and hire from within. This not only saves costs on training but also in a great platform for employee stimulation. It is important for the employees to be challenged to a reasonable level so as to encourage them to be interested in their job, thus, it is likely that the productivity levels will remain high. Motivation is key to increasing the productivity of a workforce. Compliments, for example, are excellent motivators. Satisfied employees are aware that they are appreciated as they constantly receive positive feedback from their superiors. High employee satisfaction levels are directly linked to employee productivity and employee retention as satisfied employees are more productive and loyal to their organization that their unsatisfied counterparts. An employer who understands what motivates his staff has definite control over his staff. The article "dispelling the modern myth: Employee satisfaction and loyalty drive service profitability" gives a report on research findings on operation management, service management, Total Quality Management (TQM) and Human Resource Management. The research focuses on the correlation between employee satisfaction and performance. It is a general belief that better satisfied employees have higher levels of productivity. Rhian & Silversto cites earlier works by the Americans Deming(1986), Juran (1989) and the Japanese Ishiakawa(1985) who are all management experts their writings shows that improved job satisfaction increases the productivity of employees. These authors' argument supports the belief that better performing enterprises always treated their employees in a better way. True to its title, the research finds contradicting evidence to earlier works and the general beliefs to what had been commonly accepted in the management world. The author's gives the example of Isakawa 1985 who argues that with better satisfaction, one has improved drives hence will tend to co-operate with fellow employees. The research findings from an empirical study of one of UK's Supermarket chains showed that this is not always true. The most profitable stores were the ones with the least satisfied employees "implying a negative correlation between employee satisfaction and measures of productivity, efficiency and profitability" Rhian & Sylvester. However, reports by management experts that employee satisfaction and loyalty are key factors to enhancing productivity efficiency and increasing profit. The paper puts into application, Heskett, Sasser and Schlesinger's service profit chain model to a UK supermarket. The major aim is to determine the performance linkages between employee perception and performance, customer perceptions, behavior and financial performance. Works by both Hesket and Schlesinger (1991) and Reichheld (1996) improving employee loyalty through poor rewarding helps in improving the services the employees provide hence profitability is improved. The research is a case study of the Home Improvement Store Chain in the United Kingdom. This is a large group of supermarket chains in the UK. The company was chosen since it had senior management believed that satisfaction was key to

Case study-buffalo wild wings Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Case study-buffalo wild wings - Essay Example It also offers signature seasoning like desert heat, south west ranch, blue cheese, buffalo rub etc. All the food items are related to the western culture. At first, the company needs to expand its business operation in Europe. It can be observed that there demand of such kind of foods is huge as the people of UK are also habituated to eat this kind of tastes. Similar restaurant chain operations also exist in that market. So this is anticipated that these products and services of this restaurant will get good market place in UK (Wetherly and Otter, 2014). Few images of attractive buffalo wing dishes with excellent garnishing offered by the mentioned restaurant are given below which will attract the customers. As the restaurant business is related to western taste of food items so Europe is the best region for the purpose of marketing and expanding this business. Buffalo wings, boneless wings, chicken wings, hamburger, sandwiches etc which this restaurant is offering are also very famous and demandable food items in Europe. Major cities and countries in Europe can be the target market place for opening a new branch of this restaurant. Customers can get different taste of the similar food items from this restaurant. They can also provide some new variety of items which are rarely available in the existing restaurants in that continent. London, Berlin, Hamburg, Madrid, Paris etc are the targeted cities for this business (Cullen and Parboteeah, 2009). It is already mentioned that the target market will be the European market. The big cities and major countries will be the first target places. These countries are Germany, England, Spain, Italy, France etc. This kind of wing based items are very popular in the mentioned regions and if this restaurant can add some extra flavor in these food items then demand will be increased at rapid speed and the company can earn more amount of revenue

In your own practice, which of the classification systems would be Essay

In your own practice, which of the classification systems would be most advantageous - Essay Example As nursing developed into more of a calling and a profession, it also became clear that there needed to be a standard of nursing classification languages which would be readable through all the disciplines, not only for understanding cases and diagnoses, but also to help those who were conducting research and needed to be able to pick up the terms during case research. Currently, there are three nursing classification languages commonly in use and are also internationally based, helping with evidence-based communications across borders and also across the classifications. They are utilized within the standardized nursing languages (SNL) which consist of three components: assessment, problem identification and problem management (Allred, Smith & Flowers, 2004). The organization was founded in the U.S.A. in 1982, based on the National Conference Group task force that first organized in 1973 to develop a cohesive system for notating diagnoses. In 2002, NANDA became an international group, thus opening the doors to a more global sharing of over 200 evidence-based diagnoses through a common standardized nursing language (NANDA, 2012, web). This is used in addressing patient symptoms and reactions to illnesses and injuries and is recorded by nurses through a system of problems, etiology and signs/symptoms (PES). An example of a statement for a patient who has dizziness (problem) is that there is a lack of water intake under heavy physical exertion (etiology) and the patient has dry mouth and very little urine flow (signs) (Allred et al, 2004, p. 57). The NOC is comprised of over 190 patient outcomes that nurses can refer to and it is a three-layer processing system of seven domains, 29 classes of outcomes and 260 final outcomes. These are concerned with information regarding the patient’s surroundings and environment that encompasses family members, community and each has an assigned

George Washington's Farewell Address Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

George Washington's Farewell Address - Essay Example From the essay "Farewell Address" it is clear that in the beginning section of the letter he addressed his concerns of the various security threats that the nationals of America might face in different sects of life. He stated and believed that the American population was secure all over the world including the United States itself if the various states of the country stay united and left peacefully with each other. He added that the constitution that created all the states of USA is experiencing and was going to experience continuous threat from enemies located both locally and internationally. He advised the American people that they should not support those who were looking forward to breaking the union and they should give importance to the unity of the United States over all other factors such as religion, culture and behavior. In his address, he even gave supports to the new government that will be taking over and emphasized the importance of constitution whenever the people of America wish to change the government. He even stated that the government should operate in accordance with the constitution and any changes to the constitution should only be made if the majority of the population of America votes in the favor of the change. Another warning given by Washington through his address was that there are certain political elements that will become an obstacle in the governemnt’s right to use their power and make the decision. These elements will try to persuade the citizens that such activities are in the best interest of the American’s.... These elements will try to persuade the citizens that such activities are in the best interest of the American’s, but the rel intention of these elements is to take power from the hands of the government and transfer this power in the hands of the unfair individuals (Hargrove, 2000, p.14). Washington warned the American people about the creation of political parties as political parties devide the population into groups by saveguarding and represnting the interest of a small portion of the entire population. He even pointed out that the activities of these parties face various obstacles from the government as government beilieves that these parties are their enemies. On the other hand these parties even try to crfeate differences and break governments that have been elected by the majority vote. Washington states that the constitution is very important to keep a track of changes in parties and to ensure that parties that are working for the interest of only one group do not se ek governmental powers. He even states that if certain authority that the government has is unjust, then changes can be made through constitution and not force. Through his letter, he even gave imporftance to religion and morality anad stated that religion is very important to live morally. Washinton supported the creation of balanced federal budget through his letter and stated that government credit should be used wisely, all debts acccumulated during the time of war should be repaid immediately to ensure that the burden of these debts do not fall on the shoulders of the generations that have yet to come. He even emphazied that in certain scanrios such as while safeguarding United States more expenditure needs to

Globalization, Communication And Postmodernity Describing The Shift Essay

Globalization, Communication And Postmodernity Describing The Shift From Web 1.0 To Web 2.0 - Essay Example From the read-only interface offered by Web 1.0, the introduction of Web 2.0 has opened various means of web communications making the web interface not only as a source of information, but also as an interactive zone. Blogs, wikis, social network sites, online games, and even e-commerce have redefined practices of communication in the postmodern times re-introducing the processes and activities in a globalized approach. Starting from Web 1.0 as the first generation World Wide Web, the first web interface offered read-only contents via static websites with limited performance and visual parameters, zero to minimal interaction with the site, and most importantly, web communication fundamentally facilitated via e-mail. Shuen (2008) has described Web 1.0 as a digitized place for searching information, for making available and transmitting various downloadables, and for fashioning e-commerce approach from the traditional mail-based interfaces. Added by Oreilly (2007), Web 1.0 treated web as a platform for presenting information using one-way channel of communication with limited response mechanisms. For instance, Web 1.0 services, such as Mp3.com, Akamai, Ofoto, content management systems, and others, are the means utilized for conveying content, downloadables, and information. ... Meanwhile, business model of Web 1.0 follows the principles of treating users as audience and speculating consumers (Eighmeya & McCordb, 1998), admin-based web business (Oreilly, 2007) and lastly, one-way search and one-way feed of information (Sinclair, et al., 2006). These details support and explain the architectural background of Web 1.0 that stems from the identified â€Å"architecture of presentation† (Oreilly, 2007; Sinclair, et al., 2006). On the other hand, the upgraded version known as Web 2.0 is characterized by the read-write interface where values emerge from the contribution of the larger viewers instead of the traditional command and control of information (Lytras, et al., 2008). The objectives of Web 2.0 are to enhance creativity, information sharing, and collaboration among users, such as the development of so-called web communities through various social networking sites, wikis, blogs, and folknomies (Zhang, 2008). Gossen (2011) has identified four key charac teristics of Web 2.0. He claims that web 2.0 fosters web presence on the web by allowing the option of regular updating, responding to, and even creating content under a user profile. Secondly, Web 2.0 allows personal modification of web-interface affecting the personal web experience of a single user with a 2.0-based website, and more notably, website contents are user generated often a result of collaboration between users and site developers. He also asserts that, Web 2.0 is about social participation through various web activities, such as ratings, rankings, commenting, feedback mechanisms, and others all aimed at interacting with other users. Aside from its

The Divine Command Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Divine Command Theory - Essay Example Too many words and arguments have been expended on this topic, but let me draw my reason from this simple passage to why this theory should be endorsed: " God is love." [1 John 4:8]. If we believe that God does not declare what is good, and simply commands us to do it, just because he is the stronger and he is therefore the authority, isn't it hard to obey The human nature is stubborn, that I believe. But if we are to think that there are these existing commandments, from an authority who knows our inmost being, Someone who provides our needs even before we ask for it, the One who loves us unconditionally (these I learned from Sunday schools), isn't it true that it will be easier to follow I deem that the same God I got to know on Sunday schools is the same God being talked about in the Divine Command Theory. Therefore, to endorse the theory will mean no harm; instead this will lead people to do good, embrace what is good, and to obey His commandments. One main objection to the Divine Command theory is the so-called Euthyphro Dilemma, proposed by Plato. The dilemma goes like this: "are morally good acts good because God commands it, or God commands it because God Himself is good" From this, at least three problems for a Divine Command Theory arise: The problem of emptiness, whereby "God commands what is good"; the problem of independence, whereby God only commands things because they are already morally good, thus making God irrelevant to the moral rightness of action; and thirdly the problem of horrendous commands, whereby God could, if DCT is true, command acts that we find horrendous The independence problem: how can the notion of "goodness" be objectively separate from God How can one judge God to be good if God is the source of what we call goodness (Peoples). I chose to cite the implication that morality is arbitrary as another standard objection to the theory aside from the well famous Euthyphro Dilemma. It implies that if the theory is true, morality is based only on God's whim. Therefore if God commands cruelty then, it would be only right to obey him and commit cruelty as well. One reply to this objection denies that God, the familiar omnipotent, omniscience, and omnibenevolent theistic deity (Miller), would have commanded such things because, He necessarily does not command evil. Whether God is red in tooth and claw (Kevin Kim), or whether He is the God of love I came to know on Sunday schools, it only means that all of us, from time to time, reflects on that Being to whom goodness emanates, may it be absolute or not depending on your beliefs. Works Cited Wheeler. http://www.philosophy.uconn.edu/department/wheeler/divine.pdf Glenn Andrew Peoples http://www.berettaonline.com/articles/philosophy/echo.html Miller, Christian. "Divine Theory and Obligation". New Waves in Philosophy of Religion. Ed. Y. Nagasawa and E. Wielenberg. Palgrave Macmillan, 105-124.. http://www.thedivineconspiracy.org/Z5230U.pdf Kim, Kevin. http://bighominid.blogspot.com/2005/05/divine-command-theory.html Cultural Relativism Cultural relativism is the philosophical principle which says that an individual's beliefs and activities is to be understood by his culture. It holds

EasyJet plc (airline strategy report) Assignment - 1

EasyJet plc (airline strategy report) - Assignment Example Its technology is at a strong point though there is need for improvement with constant growth of new technology (Simister 2011). Threat of entry is very low compared to heavy budget connected to airline demands. Globalization is providing the company with new opportunities for new markets allowing the company expands through different nations. EasyJet has a great potential of growth within the airline industry because of its ability to operate in small airports where other airlines in these airports is very low (Bamber et al. 2009). The diagram above indicates that EasyJet is in a favorable position giving it the ability to take up a growth strategy which is aggressive. It is evident that the airline is operating in a stable and attractive industry giving it competitive advantages coupled with significant financial strength. From the above analysis, it is quite evident that EasyJet strategy is adequate in relation to the airline industry market demand. However, there are several issues that the company needs to address to strengthen its strategies. The following recommendations are necessary; There is need for EasyJet to expand its geographical market to other market apart from its concentration in Europe and countries near Europe. By so doing the company will be able to capture low cost airline demand especially in developing countries. In order to increase its competition in the low cost airlines, it is important for EasyJet to improve its facilities of operating the flights. Improving its facilities will provide the airline with opportunities to operate better in markets. Even in establishment of low cost flights, EasyJet need to create different boarding classes to fit a wide segment of its target market. For instance, businessmen prefer business class while travelling which cannot be the same case for other individuals. The company can engage its customer through offering group discounts for customer travelling as group. For

The ethics of Aristotle Essay Example for Free

The ethics of Aristotle Essay Philosophers live and encourage others to live according to the rules of practical wisdom. Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, and Emmanuel Levinas were three philosophers who sorted out various ethical approaches. They investigated complex human actions and theorized what is the ethical thing to do. For instance, Aristotle contemplated the aim of human life, Kant observed duty and obligation from respect for the law, and Levinas examined ones responsibility to the Other. These unique points of view offer different answers regarding the search for the good. In addition to their differences, these philosophers are bound together by similar ideas. For example, each of the philosophers believed in optimism they thought that all humans are naturally ethical. In addition, each of the philosophers believed in using reason to be ethical. They emphasized the concept of living well and acting well by using virtuous habits and good character to reach the good. Furthermore, they all believed in self actualization in other words, ethically being the best one can be. They all thought an ethical person must be rational and responsible for their actions. They proposed that each person has a duty towards others and society. Aristotle lived during the B.C. era and established the concept of teleological ethics. This means that ethics has a purpose or a reason. He stressed the concept of doctrine of the mean maintaining balance in ones actions. Additionally, he theorized the idea of developing virtuous habits to build good character as well as that happiness is the main goal of all human beings. He explained how reaching ones potential by living well and acting well will ultimately lead to happiness. Moreover, he stated one should base ones actions on reason and he introduced the concept that reason controls desire. Immanuel Kant was a philosopher who lived the majority his life in the 1700s. He believed that an individual should use God, freedom, and immortality to be able to pursue and attain the supreme good. He also believed in deontological ethics, meaning it is ones obligation and duty to do what is right. Kant said that an individual must use intellect, free will, and reason to carry out this duty. He is similar to Aristotle because likewise, he believed that it is ideal for all people to act in an ethical  manner by using reason. However, unlike Aristotle, Kant believed one must act ethically as an individual autonomy for the good of society. He said that one must use reason and free will to carry out ones duty and moral obligation to do good. He stressed the concept of not expecting to gain anything in return while performing ethical tasks even though one might not like it one should act ethically out of the goodness in ones heart. On the other hand, Aristotle believed one should act ethically as part of a community based on politics. He also expected a benefit in return, contrary to Kant. Aristotle said that it is ideal to achieve a reasonable means in ethics, and he expected to gain something like happiness for instance in return. Also, contrary to Aristotles theory, Kants theory proposes that it is not very possible to achieve the supreme good in ones lifetime. He suggested that humans must achieve this good in a life after death. This proves that their theories regarding how to achieve the supreme good differ considerably. Emmanuel Levinas was a Jewish philosopher of the 20th century. He observed that the West focused on the Unity of Beings, not the Hebrew infinity. The Hebrew Infinity focuses on uniqueness and singularity of things which gives them identity. Levinas based his ethics on this concept. Levinas believed one encounters the good or God in all individuals or in creation. He said one needs to recognize these traces, accept them, and respond to them. He talked about the thrill of astonishment, which is a face to face experience that touches one deeply. Additionally, he suggested that the face of the stranger (the Other) demands that you recognize it and provide it hospitality. Thus, the face becomes ethical. He had this whole idea of promoting freedom rather than limiting it. He believed that the face is a trace of God that refuses to use power. Instead, the face calls one to be responsible by humbly beckoning those that passes by. Kant also had similar theories as Levinas because both of them emphasized that God is necessary for a person to act ethically. In other words, they included God in their search for the good. Kant believed one cannot do this without God, whereas Levinas believed humans are motivated by God to do good. With the concept of the Other, Levinas suggested that humans have a responsibility to respond with caring and compassion. Similarly, Kant also believed in caring and  compassion because he believed in the Universal Law if it is an act that is good for everyone, then it is good for an individual. It is evident that Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, and Emmanuel Levinas were three philosophers who sorted out various ethical approaches that aided them in their search for the good. Despite the fact that they have several similar theories, each philosopher has many unique theories that will continue to help future generations learn to live ethically and to ultimately achieve the greater good.

Does Leadership Affect Employee Commitment Management Essay

Does Leadership Affect Employee Commitment Management Essay In this thesis, the influence of different leadership styles, on the commitment of employees will be researched. According to the literature, commercial performances of companies depend on the commitment of employees. (Bovenlander en Timmer, 2007). However there are different interpretations of commitment. According to Sheldon (1971, p.143) commitment appears when the identity of the person (is linked to organization. Hall et al., (1970 p. 176) commitment appears when the goals of the organization and those of the individual become increasingly integrated or congruent In general one can argue that when commitment of the employees towards the company is high, this will have a positive influence on the organization. In fact, managers or leaders have an influence on the commitment and motivation among their employees. Managers have a great influence on their staff. They have an influence on the commitment of employees to achieve the business objectives. Earlier research points out that HRM investments provide a good job experience and thus commitment of the employees (Steijn, 2003). Not only HRM managers, but also other managers must ensure the commitment of the employees. Avolio et al. (2004) argued that leaders can have a positive influence on work motivation. They also argued that this study is not completed yet. Future research also needs to collect ratings of leadership, empowerment, and outcomes from multiple sources over time to adequately test the mediating effects of psychological empowerment on the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational commitment. (Avolio et al., 2004 p. 964) A lot of research is done about commitment and leadership, but which way of leadership is the best way to create commitment among employees? This reason makes this field a very interesting field of research. This literature review focalizes on different leadership styles and their influence on commitment. This will be examined in this paper, by means of a literature review. This will result in a clear and proper insight in commitment, leadership and the connection between these two variables. Problem statement How does leadership influence the commitment of employees? Research Questions An answer on the problem statement will be given by the following sub questions: What are the different leaderships styles and what are the characteristics of these styles? What is commitment and how can commitment be measured? How can leaders improve the commitment of their employees? Methodology This literature review will be a exploratory research. This is done on a descriptive basis. The typical approach for this thesis will be to rely on available literature: existing theses and studies from well-known scientists. (Sekaran and Bougie, 2009) For this research it is necessary to investigate the following variables: commitment and the different leadership styles and his characteristics. The results of this research will be the basis for further empirical research. Further empirical research will consist about the link between the variables commitment and leadership. The scientific papers that will be discussed are located on websites or the Tilburg Universitys library. Structure To give an answer to the main question of this thesis, how does leadership influence the organization with respect to work motivation, you first need to find an answer on the two sub questions. To give an answer on the sub questions, it is necessary to investigate the variables leadership and motivation. Regarding motivation it is important to know all the factors that may have an influence on the work motivation of employees. Leadership will be examined using two different styles. Namely transactional and transformational leadership. After that it is possible to connect leadership with work motivation. This will be the last chapter of the this thesis and will give you a clear and proper answer on the main question. Chapter 1: Leadership In the following chapter different leadership styles will be analyzed. What are the different leaderships styles and what are the characteristics of these styles? This question is the main question that will be answered in this chapter. Although several approaches to leadership, the distinction made between transformational and transactional leadership is the most prominent in the literature (Keegan and Den Hartog, 2004). Firstly, the different leadership styles will be described. After that transformational and transactional leaders will be further explained. Finally, a short conclusion will be made. 1.1 Leadership styles In this paragraph will be analyzed which leadership styles are mainly used by prominent researchers. In the second part of this paragraph these leadership styles will be further analyzed. A distinction between transformational and transactional leadership will be made. In the past, there have been several studies on leadership. So did Alice H. Eagly, Mary C. Johannesen-Schmidt (2001) research about the difference between the leadership styles of men and women. Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt (2001) argued that women face more barriers to become leaders than men do. They try to make a distinction between female and male managers using transactional, transformational and Laissez-Faires leadership. Researcher Weber (1947) described four different leadership styles. He was one of the first who made a distinction between transformational and transactional leadership. Also prominent researchers did further research with respect to transformational and transactional leadership. Bass (1985) and Burns (1978) developed new thoughts on transformational and transactional leadership. Therefore is chosen only to discuss transformational and transactional leadership in this literature review. In the next paragraph these two styles will be further analyzed. 1.1.1 Transactional leadership Transactional leadership occurs when the initiative of one person towards others to make contact for an exchange of something valuable. (Burns,1978) (Bass, 1985) (Kuhnert and Lewis, 1987) Bass (1990) made a distinction between four types of transactional leaders. Contingent reward: The manager gives rewards if employees perform well by giving pay increases and advancement. But he also gives penalties if they do not perform well. Management by exception (active): A transactional leader only takes action when things went wrong. He is constantly looking for deviant behavior and then he takes corrective action. (Bass,1990) Management by exception (passive): In this typology the manager intervenes only if the standards are not met. Laissez-Faire: Some researches argued that this is a separate leadership style (Eagly and Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001), but Bass (1990) argued that this is a part of transactional leadership. A Laissez-Faire manager constantly avoids decision making, he takes no responsibility. Bass (1990) find this kind of leadership ineffective and, in the long run, counterproductive. Also he found out that the effectiveness of this style depends on the control that the leader has on the rewards or penalties. 1.1.2 Transformational leadership Transformational leaders are charismatic leaders, that is why they inspire their employees. Employees wants to identify with this leaders. They give each employee personal attention and treat them individually. He intellectually stimulates his followers and gives advice and coaches them individually. He gains respect and trust. He tries to solve each problem carefully (Bass, 1990). This is a general description of a transformational leader. In a more recent attempt to define a transformational leader, Avolio, B.J., Bass, B.M., Jung, D.I. and Berson, Y. (2003) made a distinction between four different types of transformational leaders: Idealized influence: These leaders are admired, respected and trusted. Followers identify with and want to emulate their leaders. Among the things the leader does to earn credit with followers is to consider followers needs over his or her own needs. The leader shares risks with followers and is consistent in conduct with underlying ethics, principles and values. (Avolio et al., 2003) Inspirational motivation: Leaders behave in ways that motivate those around them by providing meaning and challenge to their followers work. Individual and team spirit is aroused. Enthusiasm and optimism are displayed. The leader encourages followers to envision attractive future states, which they can ultimately envision for themselves. (Avolio et al., 2003) Intellectual stimulation: Leaders stimulate their followers effort to be innovative and creative by questioning assumptions, reframing problems and approaching old situations in new ways. There is no ridicule or public criticism of individual members mistakes. New ideas and creative solutions to problems are solicited from followers, who are included in the process of addressing problems and finding solutions. (Avolio et al., 2003) Individualized consideration: Leaders pay attention to each individuals need for achievement and growth by acting as a coach or mentor. Followers are developed to successively higher levers of potential. New learning opportunities are created along with a supportive climate in which to grow. Individual differences in terms of needs and desires are recognized. (Avolio et al., 2003) 1.1.3 LMX Leadership In the available literature there is done a lot of research with regard to the relationship between LMX and commitment. Howell en Hall-Merenda (1999) argued that LMX and transformational leadership can be seen as complementary. The effects of transformational leadership and LMX on the commitment of employees are equal. Consequently, when the term transformational leadership is used in this review it is also applicable to LMX. For this reason, in this thesis only the term transformational leadership will be used. Furthermore in this paragraph, LMX leadership will be shortly explained. The theory of a LMX is based on the fact that not every employee receives the same treatment from his leader. Every leader develops his own unique relationship with every individual employee. (Liden Maslyn, 1998). Every relationship of leaders and subordinates has his own characteristics with respect to the interaction between the leader and the subordinate. There are four different components who describe the relationship between a leader and his subordinate. Affection, loyalty, task-related behavior and respect. Affection is related to the like-factor. Loyalty means that the employee and leader publicly support each others behavior and character. Task-related behavior is related to the performance in the organization. Finally, respect is related to respect for each others professional knowledge and skills. (Liden Maslyn, 1998). Every relationship can have each of the different components. But it is also possible that all of the components are applicable on the relation. Close rel ationships can be characterized with confidence, respect, mutual influence and likeability. These relationships, with a high LMX, are called in-group. Opposite relations, thus not a close relationship, is just a work relationship because of the contract that is signed. These relations, with a low LMX, are called out-group. (Dansereau, Graen, Haga, 1975). Thus, the theory of Leader-Member Exchange argued that every relationship between a leader and a subordinate is unique and develops in course of time. 1.4 Conclusion This paragraph is a short conclusion about leadership. In the foregoing paragraphs there is an overview of what types are mainly used and most successful. In this paragraph a comparison between transformational and transactional leadership will be made. There is much literature available about leadership. As mentioned above Howell en Hall-Merenda (1999) argued that LMX and transformational leadership can be seen as complementary. For this reason, only transformational leadership will be discussed in this thesis. However, there is no clear agreement with reference to transactional and transformational leadership. Bass (1985) suggested that the best way of leadership is a combination between these two styles. But actually all researchers agree with the fact that only transactional leadership is outdated. Managers who behave like transformational leaders are more likely to be seen by their colleagues and employees as satisfaction and effective leaders than are those who behave like transactional leaders (Bass,1990). As mentioned above transactional leaders can be effective in clarifying the expectations and organizational objectives, but in the long run its ineffective and counterproductive. Bass (1990) also argued that you need to operate as a transformational leader to improve the performance of employees. Several researchers pointed out that there is a positive relationship between transformational leadership and performance, reported in the literature. (Avolio et al., 2003). As mentioned above, in the introduction, commitment is one of the factors that has an influence on the performance. Chapter 2: Commitment This chapter will cover the concept of commitment. Mowday, Porter, and Dubin (1974) suggested that highly committed employees may perform better than less committed ones This further demonstrates that commitment needs to be investigated. In the first paragraph will be explained what commitment actually is according to several researchers. In the second paragraph, the question that will be answered is how commitment can be measured. Finally, a short conclusion about commitment will be given. 2.1 What is commitment? There is a great amount of research done about commitment. It is impossible to give one definition about commitment. Every researcher has his own approach towards commitment, they all have their own interpretation. In this research commitment will be described using uni-dimensional commitment and multi-dimensional commitment. 2.1.1 Uni-dimensional commitment One of the first researches from Mowday, R.T. , Steers, R.M. and Porter, L.W. (1979) argued that many of these definitions focus on commitment-related behaviors. For example when we talk about someone becoming bound by his actions or behaviors that exceed formal and/or normative expectations, we are in effect focusing on overt manifestations of commitment (Mowday et al., 1979). Several researchers described affective commitment in terms of an attitude, as mentioned in the introduction. The identity of the person (is linked) to the organization (Sheldon, 1971, p. 143) or when the goals of the organization and those of the individual become increasingly integrated or congruent ( Hall et al., 1970 p. 176) Cohen (2007) argued that affective commitment is highest and deepest form of the organizational commitment. Further on in this paper commitment will be measured, so only the definition of Porter will be discussed. According to Porter an employee is committed to an organization when he or she identifies themselves with the organization and he or she is involved in the organization. Mowday et al. ( 1979) defined three characteristics related to commitment: a strong belief in and acceptance of the organizations goals and values. a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization. a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization. 2.1.2 Multi-dimensional commitment The description of uni-dimensional commitment is the classical approach of commitment and made years ago. More recent attempts to give a clear insight commitment points out that uni-dimensional commitment, as earlier described not covers the whole part of commitment. It only covers the part of affective commitment. (Hackett, Bycio Hausdorf, 1994) There are three distinct types of commitment (Meyer Allen, 1991) : Affective commitment Continuance commitment Normative commitment Affective commitment refers to the employees emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. If an employee has a strong affective commitment, he wants to continue his employment because he want it to do. (Meyer Allen, 1991). This is the part as mentioned above in affective commitment. Continuance commitment and normative commitment complete the multi-dimensional commitment. Continuance commitment refers to an awareness of the costs associated with leaving the organization. Employees who primary link to the organization is based on continuance commitment remain because they need to so. (Meyer Allen, 1991). Normative commitment reflects a feeling of obligation to continue employment. Employees with a high level of normative commitment feel that they ought to remain with the organization. (Meyer Allen, 1991) Thus, employees with a strong affective commitment remains with the organization because they want it. Employees with a strong continuance commitment wants to remain with the organization because they need it. And employees with a strong normative commitment remains with the organization because they ought it. Meyer Allen (1991) argued that affective, continuance and normative commitment will be seen as components and not as different types of commitment. Each component is influenced by his own antecedents. The rate of affective commitment is related with your personal characteristics and work experience. Continuance commitment is determined by personal characteristics, alternatives and investments. Thus, when a employee has no other alternatives for what he is doing now he will continue with the organization. Investments, also known as side bets, means everything that an individual invests in a relationship, such as efforts, time and money, that would be lost or decreased when the individual would end the relationship. The rate of normative commitment is related with the antecedents personal characteristics, socialization experience and organizational investments. Normative commitment develops as a result of socialization experience that gives morale pressure to remain with the organization. Organizational investments comes from the receiving of much advantage by the employee. The employee wants to pay it back (Bovenlander, 2007). In the appendix is shown a figure the relationships between the expected antecedents, forms of commitment and the expected results according to Meyer Allen. 2.2 How can commitment be measured? The main question of this paragraph is how commitment can be measured. Researchers did several approaches to measure commitment. There is a large amount of approaches to measure commitment, but in the foregoing paragraph commitment is defined as uni-dimensional commitment and multi-dimensional commitment. These two explanations will be used to measure commitment. To measure commitment, Mowday, Steers and Porter (1979) developed the Organizational Commitment Questionnarie (OCQ). This questionnaire consists of fifteen different statements, which try to measure the three commitment related characteristics as mentioned in the foregoing paragraph. In the appendix are the fifteen statements according to Mowday et al., (1979). More Meyer Allen argued that this approach to measure commitment only measures the part of affective commitment. To measure the three parts of commitment, affective commitment, continuance commitment and normative commitment, they developed the Three-Component Organizational Commitment Scale. This scale consists of several statements, each component of commitment can be measured by his own statements. Listed below are some examples of the Three-Component Organizational Commitment scale according to Meyer Allen in several studies. Affective Commitment I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization I really feel as if this organizations problems are my own Continuance Commitment Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as much as desire It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now, even if I wanted to Normative Commitment I do not feel any obligation to remain with my current employer Even if it were to my advantage, I do not feel it would be right to leave my organization now The Three-Component Organizational Commitment Scale appears to be a reliable scale to measure affective, calculative and normative commitment. The model and the measurement instrument focus especially on the commitment of a whole organization. In a later stage this model is also translated towards other objects of commitment, such as the appeal to test the generalization of the model. How an employee behave on his work depends on the organizational commitment and the occupational level. The occupational level is the level of commitment with reference to the profession itself. The three components of commitment with the profession are associated with variables who measure the antecedents of commitment as mentioned above. Meanwhile it point out to be that a high organizational and occupational commitment lead to performance improvements and low staff turnover. (Meyer Allen, 1993) 2.3 Conclusion In this paragraph a short conclusion about commitment will be given. The most complete form to describe commitment is the Multi-Dimensional way. According to this description of Meyer Allen commitment consists of three components. The affective component, the continuance component and the normative component. In fact, employees with a strong affective commitment remains with the organization because they want it. Employees with a strong continuance commitment wants to remain with the organization because they need it. And employees with a strong normative commitment remains with the organization because they ought it. These components where influenced by the different antecedents as shown in the figure of paragraph 2.1. In an approach to measure affective commitment Mowday et al., (1979) developed a Organizational Commitment Questionnarie (OCQ). To measure affective, continuance and normative commitment, Meyer Allen developed the Three-Component Organizational Commitment Scale. It measures the three different components of the Multi-dimensional commitment. This model appears to be a reliable scale to measure commitment. A positive organizational and occupational commitment lead to performance improvements and low staff turnover. This could be a very interesting outcome for organizations and managers. Chapter 3: Commitment and leadership As mentioned in the introduction transformational leadership has a positive connection with organizational commitment. (Avolio et al., 2004). In the two foregoing chapters of this research leadership and commitment is discussed. In the first paragraph the connection between leadership and commitment will be described. Additionally will be explained what exactly this connection is and an answer on the main question of this research will be given: What is the influence of leadership on the commitment of employees? 3.1 Connection between leadership and commitment The following chapter will provide information about the link between commitment and leadership. First, shortly will be explained which connection there is between leadership and commitment according to the two foregoing chapters. Commitment is one of the factors that have an influence on the performance. And as mentioned in a foregoing chapter, several researches pointed out that there is a positive relationship between transformational leadership and performance, reported in the literature (Avolio et al., 2003, 2004). Bass (1990) also argued that you need to operate as a transformational leader to improve the performance of employees. Thus, the conclusion that transformational leadership has an influence on the organizational commitment can be made. Transactional leadership will not be discussed in this chapter, because researches cannot find a positive connection between transactional leadership and organizational commitment. As mentioned above transactional leadership is ineffective en counterproductive on the long run. 3.2 Transformational leadership and affective commitment Earlier research points out that it is mainly the part of affective commitment of an employee who is related to various organizational issues as leadership. (Purcell Hutchingson, 2007). As mentioned in the foregoing paragraph there is only a positive connection between transformational leadership and commitment. Thus, this review will only cover the part of transformational leadership and his connection with affective commitment. According to Truckenbrodt (2000) appears that a high quality of exchange between leader and employee lead to a high organizational commitment. And a low quality of exchange lead to a low organizational commitment. In practice, a high quality of exchange means that a leader gives an employee responsibility. A leader involves the employee in the decision making and gives him autonomy. Several researchers pointed out that a high quality relationship between a leader and an employee creates more commitment among the employees. (Gernster and Day, 1997) (Basu en Green, 1997) As mentioned earlier in this paragraph, there is a positive connection between affective commitment and transformational leadership. Which means that when a leader operate as a transformational leader and the quality of exchange is high, it creates high affective commitment among employees. The rate of affective commitment is related with personal and organizational factors and characteristics and work experience of an employee. So, now it is clear that there is a relation, and what that relation is. However, it is interesting to know how leaders can have an influence on this and so create a high quality of exchange. According to Shamir, House, Arthur (1993) transformational leaders are capable to have an influence on the organizational commitment of employees by promoting higher levels of intrinsic value associated with goal accomplishment, emphasizing the linkages between follower effort and goal achievement, and by creating a higher level of personal commitment on the part of the leader and followers to a common vision, mission, and organizational goals. But how can transformational achieve these goals. Avolio (1999) argued that transformational leaders influence followers organizational commitment by encouraging followers to think critically by using novel approaches, involving followers in decision-making processes, inspiring loyalty, while recognizing and appreciating the different needs of each follower to develop his or her personal potential. In summary, transformational leaders can have an influence on the affective part of commitment. They need to get their employees involved by the organization. There are different components that has an influence on the commitment. For example, the involvement of an employee in the decision-making is an important issue to create commitment among employees. 3.3 Psychological influence on commitment of employees Another issue that cannot be underestimate is the psychological influence that transformational leaders can have on organizational commitment. In this paragraph will be explained what several researches suggested about this subject. Transformational leaders can have an influence on several aspects such that employees are capable to get everything out of themselves (Lowe et al., 1996). Aspirations, identities, needs and preferences are some of these aspects that Lowe et al. (1996) argued about in his literature review. Transformational leaders are able to ensure that employees wants to identify with them. Transformational leaders have the potential to make clear towards their employees how essential a wealthy career and future is. That is how they can create committed and motivated employees, because their employees want to meet this expectations (Avolio et al., 2004). As mentioned earlier commitment is one of the factors that has an great influence on performance. Several researches pointed out that these leaders try to create a working climate which results in good performances. They try to do it with their enthusiasm, high moral standards, integrity, and optimism and provide meaning and challenge to their followers work, enhancing followers level of self-efficacy, confidence, meaning, and self-determination (Avolio et al., 2004). Leaders are constant seeking for different ways to let employees perform well. Transformational leaders wants give their subordinates new insight of getting things done. They try to intellectual stimulate them. (Bass Avolio, 1997). As mentioned earlier it is from great importance to give employees responsibility and getting them involved in the decision-making. The more committed an employee is, the better the performance. Hughes, Ginnett, Curphy (1999) argued that an intensive supervision by means of coaching, giving feedback and encouragement, ensure that the self-confidence of an employee in his performance increases. This occurs through a transformational leader, who try to have close ties with every employee, so that he or she knows exactly what is in the employees mind. Shamir (1995) suggested that physically close leaders have a greater opportunity to show individualized consideration, sensitivity to followers needs, and support for the development of employees. Transformational leaders, as mentioned above, who knows exactly what is in the mind of an employee, give intense supervision, give feedback and so on, are called close leaders. Leaders with a less close relationship, which are on distant of their employees are named, as the term suggest, distant leaders. Close leaders have a very positive effect on organizational issues as performance and commitment. Thus, when an employee believes that their leader involves them in the organization, due to the foregoing ways, they feel a high commitment towards the organization. 3.4 Conclusion In this paragraph a conclusion about the connection between commitment will be summarized. In fact, an answer on the main question of this research will be given. How does leadership influence the commitment of employees? Avolio et al. (2004), suggested that transformational leadership has a positive connection with organizational commitment. Commitment is one of the factors that have an influence on the performance. So commitment could be a very interesting organizational issue for transformational leaders. Earlier research points out that it is mainly the part of affective commitment of an employee who is related to various organizational issues as leadership. (Purcell Hutchingson, 2007). Thus, transformational leaders can have an influence on the affective commitment of employees. Several researchers pointed out that a high quality relationship between a leader and an employee creates more commitment among the employees. (Truckenbrodt, 2000) (Gernster and Day, 1997) (Basu and Green, 1997) An interesting question that now arises is, how transformational leaders can ens